beowulf notes
PART I: DENMARK (lines 1-1887)
Introduction (1-85)
Founding of the Scylding Dynasty (4-67a)
Building of Heorot (67b-85)
Grendel
Introduction: Outer Darkness vs. Creation of Light (86-114)
His Ravages (115-93)
Beowulf
Introduction (194-209)
His Coming to Denmark (210-319)
Arrival at Heorot--Ceremony, Feasting, Boasts (320-702a)
The Fight with Grendel (720b-836)
After the Fight--Praise, Feasting, Gifts (837-1250)
The Story of Sigemund (875-97)
The Story of Heremod (898-915)
The Story of Finnsburh (1063-1160a)
The Story of the Brosinga mene: Past and Projections (1195-1214a)
Vengeance--Grendel's Mother (1251-1396)
The Fight with Grendel's Mother (1397-1622)
After the Fight--Praise, Moralizing, Feasting, Gifts (1623-1887)
"Hrothgar's Sermon" (1699-1784):
Part 1 (1700-22): Exemplum--Heremod
Part 2 (1723-57): Application, Amplification, Generalization--"The Ruined Noble"
Part 3 (1758-82): Application, Specification--Beowulf, Hrothgar
TRANSITIONAL: Beowulf's Return to Geatland (1888-2199)
Prognosis for Hrothgar's Diplomacy (2020-69a)
Monster-Fights (2069b-2140a)
PART II: GEATLAND (2200-3182)
Fifty Years Later--Old King Beowulf; Introduction of the Dragon (2200-2323)
History of the Hoard; "Lay of the Last Survivor" (2233-70a)
Dragon & Beowulf--How Beowulf Became King & His Determination to Kill the Dragon (2324-2424)
Beowulf's Credentials Reiterated (2345-68)
Beowulf's Speech--Nostalgia & Beot (2425-2537)
Hrethel's Dilemma; "Elegy of the Old Father" (2435-71)
Swedes, Frisians; Slaying Dæghrefn (2472-2508a)
The Fight with the Dragon (2538-2709a)
First Encounter (2556b ff.)
Second Encounter (2669 ff.)
Third Encounter (2688 ff.)
Beowulf's Last Speeches & Death (2709b-2845)
After Beowulf's Death--Grief, Doom Foreseen, the Pyre & Barrow of the King (2846-3182)
Messenger/"Prophet" (2900-3027)
Franks, Frisians, Swedes
History of the Swedish Feud; the Battle of Ravenswood (2923b-88)
Pyre & Barrow: Last Rites (3110-80)
Notes
Some Elements to Note
Cycles of Violence
Fratricide/Kinslaying
Generosity & Stinginess
Lineages (esp. Danes vs. Grendel)
Mutability/Transitoriness
Use & Abuse of Boasts
Use & Abuse of Swords
Important contrasts:
Light & Dark
Relation & Isolation
Youth & Age
The Essential Model
From Bede's A History of the English Church and People, Chapter 13: Edwin holds a council with his chief men about accepting the Faith of Christ. [This council took place in AD 627; Bede completed his History in AD 731.]
Another of the king's chief men signified his agreement with this prudent argument, and went on to say: "Your majesty, when we compare the present life of man with that time of which we have no knowledge, it seems to me like the swift flight of a lone sparrow through the banqueting-hall where you sit in the winter months to dine with your thanes and counsellors. Inside there is a comforting fire to warm the room; outside, the wintry storms of snow and rain are raging. This sparrow flies swiftly in through one door of the hall, and out through another. While he is inside, he is safe from the winter storms; but after a few moments of comfort, he vanishes from sight into the darkness whence he came. Similarly, man appears on earth for a little while, but we know nothing of what went before this life, and what follows. Therefore if this new teaching can reveal any more certain knowledge, it seems only right that we should follow it."
This model--the framing of life (individual, social, universal) by darkness--is established in the first 114 lines of Beowulf by three stories: that of Scyld, that of Heorot, and that of the world's creation.
Essential Model for the World of Beowulf
(1) The Hall (see 64 ff. and 311), reflecting (2) the conception of the world suggested by the creation story sung in Heorot (see 86 ff.); then (3) the encroachment of the Dark on Light, the brave battling of heroes against the dark, and eventual defeat.
Within this model, the descriptions of monster-dwellings seem significant in their reinforcement of the model (yet their suggestion that within the circle of light, openings to the darkness exist) and in their particular attention to the theme of isolation that attends evil--the monsters, death, what have you--throughout the poem. See 1345-76a (the land of the Grendelkin) and 2210b-2323 (the history of the dragon Hoard and its relationship to Beowulf's kingdom).
Beowulf and Cain
From the Old English Poem Maxims I, lines 58-70 (ed. and trans. T. A. Shippey):
Wearð fæhþo fyra cunne, siþþan furþum swealg
eorðe Abeles blode. Næs þæt andæge nið,
of þam wrohtdropan wide gesprungon
micel mon ældum, monegum þeodum
bealoblonden niþ. Slog his broðor swæsne
Cain, þone cwealm serede. Cuþe wæs wide siþþan
þæt ece nið ældum scod. Swa aþolware
drugon wæpna gewin widne geond eorþan,
ahogodan ond ahyrdon heoro sliþendne.
Gearo sceal guðbord, gar on sceafte,
ecg on sweorde ond ord spere,
hyge heardum men. Helm sceal cenum,
ond a þæs heanan hyge hord unginnost.
[Translation: A state of violence came into being for the race of men, from the moment when the earth swallowed the blood of Abel. That was no one-day disturbance; from the blood-drops of that crime there sprang far and wide great wickedness from men, inextricable hatred and evil for many peoples. It was Cain who killed his own brother and plotted the murder. It was known everywhere after that that an eternal hatred was afflicting men. So the inhabitants of earth endured the clash of weapons through the world, inventing and tempering wounding swords.
The war-shield must be ready, the shaft must have a spear, the sword an edge and the spear a point, the unyielding man must have spirit. The brave man must have a helmet, the man of poor spirit will always have least treasure.]
From the Old Testament (Gen. 4:1-16 [RSV]):
[1] Now Adam knew Eve his wife, and she conceived and bore Cain, saying, "I have gotten a man with the help of the Lord." [2] And again, she bore his brother Abel. Now Abel was a keeper of sheep, and Cain a tiller of the ground. [3] In the course of time Cain brought to the Lord an offering of the fruit of the ground, [4] and Abel brought of the firstlings of his flock and of their fat portions. And the Lord had regard for Abel and his offering, [5] but for Cain and his offering he had no regard. So Cain was very angry, and his countenance fell. [6] The Lord said to Cain, "Why are you angry, and why has your countenance fallen? [7] If you do well, will you not be accepted? And if you do not do well, sin is crouching at the door; its desire is for you, but you must master it."
[8] Cain said to Abel his brother, "Let us go out to the field." And when they were in the field, Cain rose up against his brother Abel, and killed him. [9] Then the Lord said to Cain, "Where is Abel your brother?" He said, "I do not know; am I my brother's keeper?" [10] And the Lord said, "What have you done? The voice of your brother's blood is crying to me from the ground. [11] And now you are cursed from the ground, which has opened its mouth to receive your brother's blood from your hand. [12] When you till the ground, it shall no longer yield to you its strength; you shall be a fugitive and a wanderer on the earth." [13] Cain said to the Lord, "My punishment is greater than I can bear. [14] Behold, thou hast driven me this day away from the ground; and from thy face I shall be hidden; and I shall be a fugitive and a wanderer on the earth, and whoever finds me will slay me." [15] Then the Lord said to him, "Not so! If any one slays Cain, vengeance shall be taken on him sevenfold." And the Lord put a mark on Cain, lest any who came upon him should kill him. [16] Then Cain went away from the presence of the Lord, and dwelt in the land of Nod, east of Eden.
Greenfield notes that "the linking of the evil broods to Cain [in medieval thought] probably derives ultimately from the apocryphal Book of Enoch (I)" (A Readable Beowulf 42 n. 14). For the connection between the Giants and the Flood, see Gen. 6 and Enoch 6-10. The precise relationship between Grendel and the "kin of Cain" is unclear in the poem; that he is at least spiritually akin to Cain, however, is never in doubt.
The association of Grendel and other monsters with Cain (and with fundamental alienation from God and humankind) informs the following passages in Beowulf: Lines 105-14 (initial identification); 1258b-78 (and see 1345-76a for the setting); 1557-62 (the sword in the mere) and 1677-98a (Hrothgar reads the hilt).
More generally, the issue of fratricide plays a significant role throughout Beowulf: See lines 81b-85 and 1162b-65a (foreboding of future problems in the kingdom of the Danes); 584-94 and 1165b-69a (Hunferth) and 1455-64 and 1519b-28 (Hrunting, Hunferth's sword); 902b-04a and 1709b-22 (Heremod); 2435-67 (Hrethel and his sons; the "Elegy of the Old Father"); 2741-43a (Beowulf's claim of innocence).
Relation and Isolation
Relation
Heorot, 67b-85, 305-11--light, joy, singing, treasure-sharing
Creation, 86-115--circle of light and life
Hyglac and Beowulf, 2190-99--reciprocity
Isolation
Grendel's habitat, 102-05, 1357-76, 1408-41--darkness, cold, remoteness, hiddenness (dygel land 'hidden land')
Dragon's dwelling, 2200 ff.--the dragon is a heath-dweller; the path to the hoard is eldum uncuð 'unknown to men'
"Elegy of the Old Father," esp. 2455-59--empty halls
Beowulf's Barrow, 3156 ff.--isolation in death
Mutability
A thesis: Beowulf treats the theme of mutability on three levels and in terms of three models: (1) the level of the world, represented in the poem by the model of created land surrounded by the shoreless sea; (2) the level of society, represented in the poem by the bright hall surrounded by the encroaching powers of darkness; and (3) the level of the hero, represented by the structure of the poem itself, a static balance between youth and strength, on the one hand, and old age and death, on the other.
The Structure of Beowulf: This Transitory Life
Things to consider:
The ubi sunt motif: Ubi sunt qui ante nos fuerunt 'where are those who were before us,' a theme not limited to Old English consciousness, of course, but exhibited here with particular poignancy.
The heroic code in Beowulf, 1384-89 (Beowulf speaking to Hrothgar)
The heroic code in Maldon, 312-13 (Byrhtwold's famous words)
"The Lay of the Last Survivor," 2231 ff.--disintegration of society, of things, and of person
Ubi sunt in The Wanderer, esp. 89-111--læne lif
Tolkien's "The Hoard" (see The Tolkien Reader or The Adventures of Tom Bombadil)
part 2 notes
Summary and Analysis of Lines 1-193
Summary:
The poem begins with a genealogy of the Danish royal family. Scyld Shefing, the founder of the dynasty, becomes King of the Danes not through wealth (for he comes from an impoverished family) but through his ability to sack the enemies. He has a son named Beow (called Beowulf), also called a great king because he gave his treasures to his men "to make sure that later in life his beloved companions will stand by him." Upon Scyld's death, the people bury him and his treasures at sea in a traditional Germanic ceremony. Beow comes to the throne, and has a son, Healfdene. Healfdene, in turn, becomes the father of Hrothgar, the King of the Danes at the beginning of the story.
Like his ancestors, Hrothgar has kept the kingdom prosperous through winning battles and honoring his warriors. He decides to build a lavish hall named Heorot. Soon it is finished, and it becomes a great hall of feastingŠ until the demon Grendel hears the happiness in the hall and wishes to destroy it. Thus Grendel begins the bloody, 12-year rampage on Heorot that leaves Hrothgar and his people powerless to stop him.
Analysis:
The prologue recounts an age of glory for the Danes, yet it has a bitter tone. The "grand old days" of heroes has been replaced with an era of cowardice. From his description, we see that Scyld is a mighty king who can defeat anything. Compare this to his great- great- grandson Hrothgar, who is only fighting one enemy, yet allows the enemy to take over his kingdom completely without attempting to kill the monster himself. The narrator also foreshadows another weakness in the later Germanics. Beowulf of the Danes keeps his men faithful by paying them treasures; later in the poem, even treasure will not keep Beowulf of the Geats' men from leaving him to fight alone.
Heorot is Old English for "the hart," and indeed the splendor of the hall flees as a deer. The hall and the arrival of Grendel are likened to the story of the Creation and the Flood: a paradise is built, and the people enjoy its fruits until they are cursed with a disaster (even a family member of Cain is involved). Despite their knowledge of God and Christian ritual, the people turn to the pagan rituals: the Danes still expect the pagan gods to help them from the dire situation, and Grendel cannot be "bought off" with the traditional Danegeld, paid to an enemy to stop his attack.
Summary and Analysis of Lines 194-709
Summary:
The news of the trouble in Denmark eventually reaches the land of the Geats. The king of this land, Hygelac, has a thane named Beowulf, who announces that he is willing to help Denmark. His elders encourage him, even though they don't really want him to go. Beowulf picks fourteen other men, all good warriors, to travel with him. Beowulf's party "flew on the water fast," riding the waves to Denmark in their ship. Once they reach the shore, they depart the ship with their armor and weapons clinking. A coast watchman stops their progress, demanding to know who these warriors are and if they are friend or foe. Beowulf announces himself as the thane of Hygelac and the son of Ecgtheow, a man known for winning battles. He asks the coastguard to show him the way to Hrothgar's castle, so that he may give him wise counsel. The coastguard deems Beowulf worthy, and takes him to the road that leads to Heorot.
Beowulf and his thanes march up the road. When they reach Hrothgar's castle, they meet the thane Wulfgar. Beowulf introduces himself, and Wulfgar takes the information to Hrothgar. Hrothgar is pleased‹he remembers Ecgtheow, and he has heard that Beowulf is very strong. He also believes that "the Measurer/ Maker of us all has urged him here." Wulfgar allows the Geats to meet Hrothgar.
Once at Hrothgar's throne, Beowulf introduces himself as a hero who can crush water sprites, among other things. Therefore he is equipped to defeat Grendel, if Wyrd (or Fate) will have it so. Hrothgar welcomes Beowulf as the son of Ecgtheow, the man whom Hrothgar had helped in settling a feud with the Wylfingas long ago. When Hrothgar did that, he was a young man and a new king. Now Grendel ravages his countryŠbut then is not the time to dwell upon such things. Instead, the Geats must join the Danes for a feast. Thus the benches are dragged out, the mead flows, and the minstrel sings.
During the feast, Hrothgar's thane Unferth tries to discredit Beowulf. He accuses Beowulf of losing a swimming contest with Breca. Beowulf disagrees‹he not only defeated Breca, he also fought off heaps of sea-monsters, thanks to both God and Wyrd. What heroic deeds have Breca, or even Unferth, done? Unferth even killed his brothers, and he hasn't done anything to stop Grendel. Upon hearing Unferth shamed by Beowulf, the whole company laughs.
Soon afterwards, the queen Wealhtheow enters the room, bearing a mead-cup. She offers it first to Hrothgar, then to the rest of the company. Finally she offers it to Beowulf. When he takes it, he says, "I'll give you [Grendel's] life blood/Šor finish my days/ here in Heorot." His words touch Wealhtheow.
Eventually the party winds down, and Hrothgar is ready for bed. Before leaving Beowulf, Hrothgar wishes him luck and promises him all the gold he has if he can defeat Grendel. Beowulf says he will leave it to God. While his friends worry about whether they will see their homeland again, Beowulf lies down.
Analysis:
We receive the first bit of character development of Beowulf in this part of the poem. We learn that he is beloved of his people, a faithful thane of Hygelac, and a prince in his own right (through his father Ecgtheow). He is respectful to everyone he encounters, from the lowly coast guard to King Hrothgar. Later, he even shows his respect for women in his gentle words to Wealhtheow. The rumor mill has told the Danish court that he is actually a good, strong warrior. Finally, Beowulf does believe in religion. He follows both the ancient Germanic practices and the Christian practices, as we see in his ability to leave it entirely in the hands of God and Wyrd (the Anglo-Saxon word for "fate"). In short, he seems like just the man for the job, and Hrothgar realizes it.
Of course, Beowulf still has to prove himself to the company of the Danes. Enter Unferth, the maker of discord. Unferth's job is to test the actual valor of the warrior and his ability to fend off a verbal attack. Beowulf not only answers the challenge (yes, he did win the contest), he also shows the extent of his bravery (he defeated the sea monsters) and discredits Unferth's truthtelling (Unferth is nothing but a drunk murderer who can't act). With his graceful and complete defense, Beowulf proves himself to be the consummate warrior, able to fight with words and swords equally well.
The boasting match between Unferth and Beowulf is the first in a series of told and retold stories within the poem. Throughout the poem, stories are told several times, with different details appearing with each retelling. This repetition of stories is very important. It reveals the oral nature of the culture‹people learn most legends and histories of their land through these stories. It makes the people learn morals by examples of people who did good or ill. Finally, the stories work as tools for foreshadowing, especially within the larger narrative. As we will learn, Beowulf's ability to swim for long distances and long periods will become very important in his defeat of Grendel's mother.
The characters also provide foreshadowing for each other in the poem. Hrothgar and Wulfgar have a very close relationship‹Wulfgar serves Hrothgar faithfully, while Hrothgar relies on Wulfgar for sound judgement. Later this will resemble the relationship between king Beowulf and his faithful thane Wiglaf. One can also compare the relationship between Beowulf as the young warrior and Hrothgar as the young-warrior-turned-old-powerless-king. Hrothgar almost certainly indicates Beowulf's fate at the same age‹powerless, needing to rely on other thanes to help him.
Summary and Analysis of Lines 710-915
Summary:
As usual, Grendel plods through the darkness, heading toward Heorot for his nightly slaughter. He grips the hall door and rips it away. As he enters, his eyes fall upon the warriors sleeping. Little does he know that Beowulf is watching. Grendel reaches for and completely swallows one of the warriors. Next the monster reaches for Beowulf, who is ready for him. Beowulf seizes the vicious claw and holds on to it. Grendel is at first confused, then fearful as he tries to pull away. Still Beowulf hangs on tight. Grendel's wrenching and bellowing brings the Danes out of their slumber and nearly breaks Heorot. Grendel desperately wants to be free and go home, but Beowulf keeps him in place. All the warriors don't know how to help. Grendel is in such agony that he finally rips from Beowulf's grasp and runs away, leaving a bloody trail and his arm behind.
Beowulf, meanwhile, "held to his promise." As the sun rises, the people gaze at the severed arm and rejoice that the terror with Grendel is finally over. Some men follow Grendel's bloody tracks to the moors, where the water bubbles over with blood as "the tomb of the dammed."
On the way back to the hall, Hrothgar's minstrel sings a story of Beowulf's heroic deed. He also sings a story of other Danish legends. He sings of Sigemund, the hero who, with his friend Fitela, defeated a dragon and gained its treasure. He also sings of Good King Heremod, who became corrupt and evil.
Analysis:
The Beowulf poet is fond of a good pun. Here he leaps on the chance to show off his different ways to work "holding" puns into this section. Grendel and Beowulf do more reaching, gripping, tearing with hands, and seizing in this portion of the poem than any other portion. All the references fall before the battle between Beowulf and Grendel‹so we may appreciate the way Beowulf "held to his promise" by ripping the monster's arm off.
Grendel's march and arrival at Heorot create a great sense of dramatic tension in the poem. First the poet sets the scene in dank darkness, then turns to the peaceful, slumbering warriors (except for one who remains awake). Grendel trods through the moors and darkness for ten tense lines, then suddenly bursts into full attack mode. The viewpoint shifts to Beowulf, who simply watches. During the battle, there is a great seesawing of viewpoint, from terrified Grendel to determined Beowulf to waiting warriors. The changing viewpoint allows us to savor the suspense of the moment and see the scene in different ways.
The symbolic light and darkness also figure heavily into the scene. The evil Grendel ambles over the dark moors in the dead of night; Beowulf waits by the lights in the hall. Dark Grendel gazes at the glinting gold on the hall. The battle that began in darkness is completed in the dawning of day. The tension between light (symbolizing good) and dark (symbolizing evil) returns again and again in the poem.
Some have wondered why Beowulf didn't run to action immediately when the monster enters. Why would he let two of his men meet such a terrible fate? Beowulf sees them as a necessary sacrifice. Again he uses the sense of a true warrior to act. Instead of rushing into battle blindly, Beowulf chooses to stand back and get a better idea of the enemy's strengths and weaknesses.
The scop sings as the men return to Heorot. Here the scop acts as a historian and places Beowulf into his song-annals as a man like the heroes of old. He uses the story of Sigemund as a teaching tool for Beowulf, who has the courage to defeat a dragon. Sigemund's story also serves as foreshadowing for Beowulf's future. Eventually Beowulf will come to fight a dragon, with only one thane by his side. The story of Heremod serves as a lesson to Beowulf, teaching him how not to rule a kingdom.
Summary and Analysis of Lines 916-1250
Summary:
In the bright daylight, Hrothgar and Wealhtheow wait for messengers bearing news. Upon hearing the miracle that has occurred, Hrothgar thanks God and praises Beowulf's mother for being "blessed in childbirth." He declares Beowulf to be the child of his hopes, and promises him riches galore. Beowulf tells Hrothgar how his victory came, regretting that he was unable to bring Grendel's dead body to Hrothgar. Unferth stands transfixed by the sight of Grendel's arm. In fact, everyone gazes upon the arm and agrees that no sword could have done such a thing.
While the mead-hall is restored to its former glory, the narrator reminds us that death cannot be avoided. The party begins, and Hrothgar celebrates with his brother Hrothulf and Beowulf. There was no feud at this time between the brothers. Beowulf receives armor, rings, helmets, horses, and all sorts of gifts. The Geats receive gifts as well, and wergild is paid for the man the Geats lost. God and Beowulf's courage were enough to withstand wyrd.
The minstrel sings another story. This song tells the tragic story of Hildeburh, the ancient Danish princess. She was married to the king of the Frisians to settle a feud. When her brother Hnaef visited her at the Frisian capital, the Frisians attacked the Danes. Eventually Hnaef and Hildeburh's son were killed in this battle. Hengest, the next leader of the Danes, desired vengeance, and in the spring, the Danes attacked the Frisians, killing their leader and taking Hildeburh back to Denmark.
After this story, Wealhtheow comes forth. She presents herself to Hrothgar, and begs that he bequeath his lands to his family. She says she is sure Hrothulf will care for their two young sons when they inherit the kingdom. She also presents a marvelous neck-ring to Beowulf. Beowulf's king Hygelac will eventually wear this necklace when he falls. Soon the party ends, leaving warriors in various states of inebriation as they sleep.
Analysis:
The poem begins its descent into darkness and death with this section. At first it seems that all is well in Denmark. The monster is gone, the hall is built again, and Hrothgar and his brother Hrothulf are celebrating, on good terms with each other. Yet it is an uneasy peace. As Heorot is repaired, the narrator tells us that death cannot be avoided. He feels that we should know that the brothers are not feuding at that time. At the height of the celebration, the minstrel sings a tragic tale that tells of the defeat of the ancient Danes. Wealhtheow gives a necklace that Beowulf's king Hygelac will wear when he falls. The section ends with "one beer drinker / ready and doomed [laying] down on bed." Things will become more and more difficult for the Danes and the Geats, leading to nothing but death. There have already been death-feasts (for Grendel and for the men dead by his hand); now there will be sleep-deaths (in this warrior sleeping and in the warriors before). Everything will eventually lead to ruin and death, despite the continuing parties.
We receive two different visions of women in this portion of Beowulf. Beowulf's mother can be seen as an allegory for the Virgin Mary, who was also "blessed in childbirth." Both women have borne great heroes who will save mankind (by bearing Beowulf and Jesus). Yet Beowulf's mother does not seem to have any other virtues other than being a childbearer.
Compare this to Wealhtheow's role at court. Wealhtheow has already been shown as the model of a good queen. She bears the cup of the mead-hall to serve her husband and guests. She also conforms to her name, which means "treasure-bearer," by assisting in the giving of gifts to Beowulf. She acts as a peace-weaver between her husband and brother-in-law, offering Hrothulf the right to care for her sons in their father's absence. Yet she refrains from saying that Hrothulf will inherit the kingdom, and shows enough courage to ask Hrothgar to protect the kingdom for her own sons. Thus we see her as a free-thinking woman who wants to protect her sons and her kingdom‹more than just a mother.
The story of the fight at Finnesburh is documented in what is known as the Finnesburh fragment, which tells us about one of the battles. Why should the minstrel tell the story at such an inopportune moment? It is his means of educating the people‹if the Danes are not careful, they will fall in such a manner again. As always, the story also foreshadows events that will be recounted in Beowulf's speech to his own lord, Hygelac.
Summary and Analysis of Lines 1251-1649
Summary:
As the Danes slumber, another sinister monster trudges toward Heorot. It is Grendel's mother, who is also dammed to spend eternity in the dark moors. She has passed the day mourning for her dead son, and she comes to Heorot seeking vengeance for his death. When she bursts into Heorot, the warriors awake and grab their weapons. She is not as strong as her son is, but she still is strong enough to devour one warrior and snatch the arm down from its place on the wall. The desire for vengeance points to "the price of slaughter/ with a loved one's life."
Hrothgar hears of the slaughter of his beloved thane Aeschere, and he hurries to the hall to mourn. Beowulf, who slept away from the hall, is summoned. Hrothgar updates him and tells him about the man that Grendel's mother killed. He also tells Beowulf that monsters like Grendel dwell in the dark moors, which are difficult to reach. Beowulf asks Hrothgar to lead him to the moors instead of mourning for his friend. Hrothgar, Beowulf, and their thanes saddle up and ride away.
At the bloodstained lake, the search party finds Aeschere's head. They also see the serpentine creatures that inhabit the murky lake, and they shake with fear. Beowulf simply calls for his armor. Unferth offers Beowulf his own sword, named Hrunting. Beowulf then announces to Hrothgar that his belongings should be sent to Hygelac if something happens. Before Hrothgar can speak, Beowulf dives into the pool.
After a long time, Beowulf reaches the bottom of the lake, where Grendel's mother waits for him. She reaches for him, but his armor protects him. He tries to cut her, but his sword can't cut her. The two begin to wrestle, but neither gains the upper hand in this combat. Beowulf spies a large sword nearby. He manages to grab it, and in one mighty blow, he beheads Grendel's mother. Light enters the murky water then. Beowulf is still angry, however, so he also beheads Grendel, who lies dead in the cave.
Meanwhile, the Danes and Geats are convinced that they will never see Beowulf again‹after all, he has been underwater for such a long time. The Danes soon leave, but the Geats wait. Sure enough, Beowulf returns carrying Grendel's head and the hilt of the sword (the rest of the sword melted upon contact with Grendel's blood).
Analysis:
The need for repayment in some form is also a constant theme within the poem. The monsters of the poem all seek payment from life. Here Grendel's mother seeks vengeance for Grendel's death, wanting to take a life for his life. Grendel attacked Heorot because he wanted revenge for being shunned and despised. The humans think of repayment for life in monetary terms, with what is called "wergild." Beowulf is repaid for his dead man with treasures; Hrothgar cannot understand how to pay a fitting wergild to Grendel for all his lost men. The attack here is thus an attempt for Grendel's mother to retrieve the wergild on her son's life.
Hrothgar and his men show their usual cowardice in this section. Instead of asking who has killed his beloved thane and resolving to do something about it, Hrothgar merely weeps over the dead body. The Danes and Geats both quake in fear at the sight of the creatures and Aeschere's head. Beowulf, meanwhile, acts bravely, asking Hrothgar to take him to the moors, simply diving into the water instead of hanging around talking.
This battle is not as easy for Beowulf as the first one was. We knew that he could swim for great distances‹we learned this in the Breca episode. Yet it takes more than Unferth's sword to defeat Grendel's mother. In fact, the battle is won when the giant sword magically appears. This represents Beowulf's decline even in the prime of his life‹from this point, the battles will get harder for him.
The battle can be seen as a Christian allegory. Beowulf swims to hell (the underground of the moors). It is a dark place. He does battle with the devil (Grendel's mother). Although he nearly loses, God grants him a sign that will help him win (the vision of the sword). Beowulf kills the devil, and light from heaven fills hell as a blessing. Beowulf then returns from the darkness of hell to reach the light of heaven. In this allegory, Beowulf represents Jesus' descent to hell and return to life in the Resurrection. Later the poet will compare Beowulf to Christ again.
Summary and Analysis of Lines 1650-1887
Summary:
The Geats return to Heorot, where Beowulf presents the head and the hilt to Hrothgar. Hrothgar marvels at the runes on the hilt, which must have been made by giants. He praises Beowulf for his great courage. He repeats the story of evil King Heremod for Beowulf, then advises him on how to be a good king. We learn that Hrothgar has ruled for fifty years. He thanks God for protecting the Danes, and then calls for another feast. They party until late, and again the warriors all sleep in the darkness.
The next morning brings no slaughter, thankfully. Beowulf and his company wish to hurry back to their own land. Beowulf returns Hrunting to Unferth and thanks him kindly.
Before leaving, Beowulf thanks Hrothgar for the treasures, and he offers the help of the Geats if the Danes should ever need it. Hrothgar thanks Beowulf and predicts that the boy will become a great hero-king. As he watches the Geats pack up, Hrothgar wishes that Beowulf could stay. We learn that Hrothgar lived the rest of his days as a good king until he died.
Analysis:
The story recounted on the hilt of the sword is that of Noah's Great Flood as recorded in Genesis. This reinforces the constant emphasis on water that has been shown throughout the poem. The Flood narrative has a special relevance here. We are reminded of the fate of all Cain's previous descendants in that great flood; again his descendants (Grendel and Grendel's mother) have met the same fate by dying in a watery grave. However, this curses the waters for men‹from this point, man's travel by water will be doomed, leading to war and death.
Unferth has cleaned up his act, as we have seen in the sections after the boasting contest. He has seen the awe of Grendel's hand; he has graciously given Beowulf a sword to defeat Grendel's mother. In this last meeting, Beowulf and Unferth can meet as equal warriors,as they have both done noble things.
Events useful for understanding the fall of the Danes and the Geats are set up here. Beowulf's offer of help for the Danes will be acknowledged, but the Geats will be powerless to stop the enemy. For now, this offer of help to the Danes is another part of the warrior code; one should give aid to those that have aided him.
Hrothgar's rule will be a guide for Beowulf's own rule as a king. Like Hrothgar, Beowulf will rule for fifty years and be venerated as a good king.
Summary and Analysis of Lines 1888-2199
Summary:
Beowulf and the Geats return to their homeland with much rejoicing and giving of gifts. Again they "follow the swan-road" to get there. Hygelac and his queen Hygd welcome the warriors back home. The narrator compares Hygd to Offa's queen‹Hygd is a good wife, while Offa's queen was murderous until King Offa tamed her. When Beowulf tells his adventures to Hygelac, he adds another story that we have not heard before. Hrothgar betrothed his daughter Freawaru to a prince of the Heathobards in order to settle an old feud. Beowulf speculates that someone will goad this Heathobard prince to take vengeance upon the Danes for all their past wrongs. Then he gives Hygelac a sword of Hrothgar's while Hygd receives a neck-ring. When Beowulf was younger, no one thought he would come to any good; now they praise him as a warrior and hero. As a reward, Hygelac gives him half the kingdom. They rule the land together peacefully.
Analysis:
Some scholars have speculated that Beowulf's author was a servant of the real king Offa. They interpret the story of Offa's wife as the poet's attempt to show the power of the king. Offa's wife seems to be a human version of Grendel's mother, killing in a rage until a man is able to subdue her.
In Beowulf's version of events in Denmark, we learn the new story of Freawaru's betrothal to the Heathobard Prince. The parallels to the tale of Hildeburh are obvious‹a Danish princess is married to a rival country for peace, but war and death will be the result.
Beowulf plays the part of a minstrel here, the scop who teaches. Here he recounts the tale not only to tell Hygelac of the events in Denmark. He also shows his head for politics. The fact that he is able to clearly interpret the possible events of such a match attests to his talent for ruling. Hygelac apparently thinks so, too, as he gives him half the kingdom as a reward.
The rakish youth is a common trope literature. Beowulf follows the path that many other heroes have followed. When he was young, people thought he would be worthless, but as a man they praise him for his heroism.
Summary and Analysis of Lines 2200-2537
Summary:
Fifty years pass. Hygelac has died in a distant land, leaving Beowulf to reign the Geats. In the fiftieth year of his reign, another monster has the Geats under attack. A slave stole a cup from a fire-breathing dragon's treasure trove. This dragon was guarding the treasure, which was left by an ancient civilization. The last member of the race has a particularly moving speech in which he realizes that life is fleeting, compared to the permanent wealth. Eventually the dragon found the treasure, and he has guarded it for three hundred years. He slept in peace until the slave stole the cup as a plea for mercy from his lord. Now the dragon realizes that something is missing, and he goes on a rampage to find the cup.
Beowulf learns of the threat through the message that one of his mead-halls has been destroyed. The horrible news causes him to wonder if he has done something to upset God. He manages to have a large shield made in preparation for the battle with the dragon. Yet he fully realized that he is not the same young man who saved Heorot, and he has no desire to do battle.
He recalls the sad events of Hygelac's death. Hygelac died in the land of the Frisians, and Beowulf only barely escaped alive. He sailed home, where Hygd offered him the throne. Beowulf refused it in favor of Hygelac's son Heardred. The Swedes, however, betrayed Heardred and killed him, thus leaving Beowulf as the only heir. So Beowulf ruled for fifty years peacefully until the dragon came.
Beowulf and eleven of his thanes march to the cave of the dragon, as the slave who stole the cup shows them the way. As they wait before charging into the cave, Beowulf, his mind heavy with the thought of death, recounts the history of the Geat royal family. Hygelac's brothers accidentally killed each other, leaving their father to die of a broken heart. Then the Swedes came to attack, and Beowulf served Hygelac well. He gained the great sword Naegling in one of the battles with the Swedes, and he has used it since that time. Having fought bravely through his life, he is now ready to face the dragon.
Analysis:
How the world has changed over the fifty years of Beowulf's reign! All the old, great kings of long ago are now dead, as we learn from the tale of Hygelac's death. Instead of peace between the lands, everyone is engaged in a Germanic-world war. All the respect that masters and servants held for each other is now gone, to be replaced by a desire for wealth and freedom from oppression by the higher classes (as seen in the motivation for the cup-stealing). Mead-halls are destroyed, brothers kill each other, and kings live in fear. This is the culmination of the darkness that began shortly after Grendel's defeat.
The narrator reveals the similarity between the mighty Beowulf and the lowly survivor quite powerfully. The survivor speaks hauntingly about the uselessness of wealth when death is so near. After the dragon arrives and attacks, Beowulf is shown, worrying about the usefulness of life when battles and death are waiting. Each man has his own dragon to fight (the monster of greed for the survivor and the actual dragon for Beowulf), even as they wait for death.
A story imagined previously actually occurs, showing the predicting nature of stories. The scenario that Wealhtheow feared for her own sons happened to the Geats. Hygelac's sons are killed not by a brother, but by a brother tribe in the Swedes.
Beowulf is not the warrior he used to be; instead, he resembles the now-dead Hrothgar. Once he needed only his bare hands to defeat an enemy; now he needs a pilfered sword and a large shield. Once he relished a battle; now he wishes he didn't have to fight. Once he knew victory was certain; now the only thing certain is death. The narrator clearly represents the change in men between youth and old age.
Beowulf's pause before attacking is akin to Jesus' speech at the Last Supper. Certainly the settings are similar. Beowulf is surrounded by 12 men, with the slave who stole the cup acting as the betraying Judas (and the destroyer of the kingdom). Beowulf, like Jesus, knows that he will die soon. He passes on the story of his rise to the throne to his disciples, so that they will pass it on in remembrance of him.
Summary and Analysis of Lines 2538-2819
Summary:
After giving his farewell speech, Beowulf turns, gives a mighty shout, and charges forward. The dragon hears the shout and answers with a stream of fire. Beowulf readies his sword and shield, swinging at the monster with all his might.
His companions, meanwhile, have all run away like cowards. Only one, a young thane named Wiglaf, has chosen to remain. Wiglaf didn't flee because he remembered all the gifts Beowulf had given his family. He tries to persuade his comrades to remember what they owe to their lord, but to no avail. Then Wiglaf charges forth, ready to help Beowulf.
The dragon heads toward Beowulf and Wiglaf. Wiglaf cowers behind Beowulf, but Beowulf swings three times. On the last try, Beowulf kills the dragon, but not before the dragon has given him a poisonous bite. After the dragon has been destroyed, Beowulf collapses.
Wiglaf tries to bathe his lord as Beowulf speaks. Beowulf wishes for an heir. Then he expresses joy at having lived as a good man. He orders Wiglaf to bring him the treasure, so he can see it before he dies. Wiglaf brings the shining gems before him, and Beowulf is in awe of the riches. He tells Wiglaf to build him a burial mound, so sailors may guide themselves by it. Finally, he chooses Wiglaf as his heir, since they are both Waegmundings. And with that, Beowulf dies.
Analysis:
The Beowulf-as-Christ theme continues in this section. Beowulf as the Christ figure is betrayed by his disciple-thanes, who flee in terror at the first sign of danger to themselves. One disciple (in the form of Wiglaf) stays, though he also betrays the lord by being unable and too afraid to fight. After three blows
The warrior code is still extant, although only a few members of the warrior class follow it. Wiglaf remains at Beowulf's side for much the same reason that Beowulf came to help Hrothgar so long ago‹the kindness of the lord caused his family to have land and influence, and he must stay to return the favor. Beowulf, of course, plays the role of a proper king here. He charges forth, thinking only of defeating the monster to save his kingdom. At his death, his thoughts are also only of his people. He wishes to be buried on land to serve as a guide to his sailors. His dying breath is saved for naming the most fitting heir to his people.
The dying warrior being comforted by his comrade becomes a common trope as well. The image of Wiglaf holding the dying Beowulf brings forth later images of King Arthur being comforted by Sir Bedivere in later works.
Summary and Analysis of Lines 2820-3182
Summary:
Wiglaf weeps for his lord's exchange of "those lordly treasures for his life's boundary." The dragon lies dead, vanquished by the noble warriors, no longer able to work in darkness.
The cowardly thanes sneak out of the woods to see what has happened. They see Wiglaf comforting the dead Beowulf. Wiglaf turns on his comrades, cursing them for being such cowardly men.
Wiglaf sends a messenger to the people telling them that their king is dead. The messenger also foresees a time of great slaughter for the Geats. The feud that began with Hygelac and the Frisians (which the messenger repeats again in great detail) will continue when the Swedes hear of Beowulf's death. The treasures that Beowulf died to earn will be buried in the mound with him. The harp will stay silent for the coming of the ravens of war.
The people all go to collect the body of their lord. While there they see the body of the dragon, and they speculate that some "ancient sorcerers swore a greed-spell" that would bring suffering to the Geats. Wiglaf orders the burial mound prepared, while the dragon's body is to be shoved into the waters. At the ceremony, Beowulf's body is burned on a pyre, as the women wail and the men share stories of his bravery.
Analysis:
We now see the aftermath of all the greed. Despite Beowulf's own greed that motivated him to fight for the treasure, however, it still makes him greater than the dragon, which moved "at sunset" and in darkness, as all the monsters did. The dragon is cursed again with burial at sea, just as Grendel and his mother were buried earlier in the poem.
Though Wiglaf is not quite the strong thane that Beowulf was, he is obviously learning, and in quite a hurry. He has enough presence of mind to berate the cowards for their weakness, and he knows that the people must quickly grieve for their lost lord, so that they may prepare for the war that is inevitable.
Again stories told within the text have relevance to the primary narrative. Like the civilization that owned the treasure before, the last surviving member of the Geats (Beowulf) will be buried with the permanent riches. The recurring enemies of the Geats and Danes, the Frisians and the Swedes, will return. In addition, the ruling class overlaps with the artistic class in the telling of these stories. The messenger and Wiglaf now have the task of telling these stories of the ancient feuds and heroes, since there is no longer a hall in which to sing and a great minstrel to sing the tale.
Finally, closure is achieved in the poem by having it end as it began--with a funeral scene. Certain elements are retained between the two funerals. The people still mourn, and the king meets death accompanied by a wealth of treasure. This time, however, Beowulf cannot be sent out to sea as Scyld Shefing was, because he is too earthly in his desire to see the wealth. In addition, the sea has been corrupted by the bodies of the monsters resting in its depths. Therefore, Beowulf must be buried on land, with the treasures of mankind surrounding his ashes, pointing the way for all men that should happen to sail over the sea. It is a fitting end to the warrior who worked to protect his people‹the chance for rest, though still ably serving a purpose.
Introduction (1-85)
Founding of the Scylding Dynasty (4-67a)
Building of Heorot (67b-85)
Grendel
Introduction: Outer Darkness vs. Creation of Light (86-114)
His Ravages (115-93)
Beowulf
Introduction (194-209)
His Coming to Denmark (210-319)
Arrival at Heorot--Ceremony, Feasting, Boasts (320-702a)
The Fight with Grendel (720b-836)
After the Fight--Praise, Feasting, Gifts (837-1250)
The Story of Sigemund (875-97)
The Story of Heremod (898-915)
The Story of Finnsburh (1063-1160a)
The Story of the Brosinga mene: Past and Projections (1195-1214a)
Vengeance--Grendel's Mother (1251-1396)
The Fight with Grendel's Mother (1397-1622)
After the Fight--Praise, Moralizing, Feasting, Gifts (1623-1887)
"Hrothgar's Sermon" (1699-1784):
Part 1 (1700-22): Exemplum--Heremod
Part 2 (1723-57): Application, Amplification, Generalization--"The Ruined Noble"
Part 3 (1758-82): Application, Specification--Beowulf, Hrothgar
TRANSITIONAL: Beowulf's Return to Geatland (1888-2199)
Prognosis for Hrothgar's Diplomacy (2020-69a)
Monster-Fights (2069b-2140a)
PART II: GEATLAND (2200-3182)
Fifty Years Later--Old King Beowulf; Introduction of the Dragon (2200-2323)
History of the Hoard; "Lay of the Last Survivor" (2233-70a)
Dragon & Beowulf--How Beowulf Became King & His Determination to Kill the Dragon (2324-2424)
Beowulf's Credentials Reiterated (2345-68)
Beowulf's Speech--Nostalgia & Beot (2425-2537)
Hrethel's Dilemma; "Elegy of the Old Father" (2435-71)
Swedes, Frisians; Slaying Dæghrefn (2472-2508a)
The Fight with the Dragon (2538-2709a)
First Encounter (2556b ff.)
Second Encounter (2669 ff.)
Third Encounter (2688 ff.)
Beowulf's Last Speeches & Death (2709b-2845)
After Beowulf's Death--Grief, Doom Foreseen, the Pyre & Barrow of the King (2846-3182)
Messenger/"Prophet" (2900-3027)
Franks, Frisians, Swedes
History of the Swedish Feud; the Battle of Ravenswood (2923b-88)
Pyre & Barrow: Last Rites (3110-80)
Notes
Some Elements to Note
Cycles of Violence
Fratricide/Kinslaying
Generosity & Stinginess
Lineages (esp. Danes vs. Grendel)
Mutability/Transitoriness
Use & Abuse of Boasts
Use & Abuse of Swords
Important contrasts:
Light & Dark
Relation & Isolation
Youth & Age
The Essential Model
From Bede's A History of the English Church and People, Chapter 13: Edwin holds a council with his chief men about accepting the Faith of Christ. [This council took place in AD 627; Bede completed his History in AD 731.]
Another of the king's chief men signified his agreement with this prudent argument, and went on to say: "Your majesty, when we compare the present life of man with that time of which we have no knowledge, it seems to me like the swift flight of a lone sparrow through the banqueting-hall where you sit in the winter months to dine with your thanes and counsellors. Inside there is a comforting fire to warm the room; outside, the wintry storms of snow and rain are raging. This sparrow flies swiftly in through one door of the hall, and out through another. While he is inside, he is safe from the winter storms; but after a few moments of comfort, he vanishes from sight into the darkness whence he came. Similarly, man appears on earth for a little while, but we know nothing of what went before this life, and what follows. Therefore if this new teaching can reveal any more certain knowledge, it seems only right that we should follow it."
This model--the framing of life (individual, social, universal) by darkness--is established in the first 114 lines of Beowulf by three stories: that of Scyld, that of Heorot, and that of the world's creation.
Essential Model for the World of Beowulf
(1) The Hall (see 64 ff. and 311), reflecting (2) the conception of the world suggested by the creation story sung in Heorot (see 86 ff.); then (3) the encroachment of the Dark on Light, the brave battling of heroes against the dark, and eventual defeat.
Within this model, the descriptions of monster-dwellings seem significant in their reinforcement of the model (yet their suggestion that within the circle of light, openings to the darkness exist) and in their particular attention to the theme of isolation that attends evil--the monsters, death, what have you--throughout the poem. See 1345-76a (the land of the Grendelkin) and 2210b-2323 (the history of the dragon Hoard and its relationship to Beowulf's kingdom).
Beowulf and Cain
From the Old English Poem Maxims I, lines 58-70 (ed. and trans. T. A. Shippey):
Wearð fæhþo fyra cunne, siþþan furþum swealg
eorðe Abeles blode. Næs þæt andæge nið,
of þam wrohtdropan wide gesprungon
micel mon ældum, monegum þeodum
bealoblonden niþ. Slog his broðor swæsne
Cain, þone cwealm serede. Cuþe wæs wide siþþan
þæt ece nið ældum scod. Swa aþolware
drugon wæpna gewin widne geond eorþan,
ahogodan ond ahyrdon heoro sliþendne.
Gearo sceal guðbord, gar on sceafte,
ecg on sweorde ond ord spere,
hyge heardum men. Helm sceal cenum,
ond a þæs heanan hyge hord unginnost.
[Translation: A state of violence came into being for the race of men, from the moment when the earth swallowed the blood of Abel. That was no one-day disturbance; from the blood-drops of that crime there sprang far and wide great wickedness from men, inextricable hatred and evil for many peoples. It was Cain who killed his own brother and plotted the murder. It was known everywhere after that that an eternal hatred was afflicting men. So the inhabitants of earth endured the clash of weapons through the world, inventing and tempering wounding swords.
The war-shield must be ready, the shaft must have a spear, the sword an edge and the spear a point, the unyielding man must have spirit. The brave man must have a helmet, the man of poor spirit will always have least treasure.]
From the Old Testament (Gen. 4:1-16 [RSV]):
[1] Now Adam knew Eve his wife, and she conceived and bore Cain, saying, "I have gotten a man with the help of the Lord." [2] And again, she bore his brother Abel. Now Abel was a keeper of sheep, and Cain a tiller of the ground. [3] In the course of time Cain brought to the Lord an offering of the fruit of the ground, [4] and Abel brought of the firstlings of his flock and of their fat portions. And the Lord had regard for Abel and his offering, [5] but for Cain and his offering he had no regard. So Cain was very angry, and his countenance fell. [6] The Lord said to Cain, "Why are you angry, and why has your countenance fallen? [7] If you do well, will you not be accepted? And if you do not do well, sin is crouching at the door; its desire is for you, but you must master it."
[8] Cain said to Abel his brother, "Let us go out to the field." And when they were in the field, Cain rose up against his brother Abel, and killed him. [9] Then the Lord said to Cain, "Where is Abel your brother?" He said, "I do not know; am I my brother's keeper?" [10] And the Lord said, "What have you done? The voice of your brother's blood is crying to me from the ground. [11] And now you are cursed from the ground, which has opened its mouth to receive your brother's blood from your hand. [12] When you till the ground, it shall no longer yield to you its strength; you shall be a fugitive and a wanderer on the earth." [13] Cain said to the Lord, "My punishment is greater than I can bear. [14] Behold, thou hast driven me this day away from the ground; and from thy face I shall be hidden; and I shall be a fugitive and a wanderer on the earth, and whoever finds me will slay me." [15] Then the Lord said to him, "Not so! If any one slays Cain, vengeance shall be taken on him sevenfold." And the Lord put a mark on Cain, lest any who came upon him should kill him. [16] Then Cain went away from the presence of the Lord, and dwelt in the land of Nod, east of Eden.
Greenfield notes that "the linking of the evil broods to Cain [in medieval thought] probably derives ultimately from the apocryphal Book of Enoch (I)" (A Readable Beowulf 42 n. 14). For the connection between the Giants and the Flood, see Gen. 6 and Enoch 6-10. The precise relationship between Grendel and the "kin of Cain" is unclear in the poem; that he is at least spiritually akin to Cain, however, is never in doubt.
The association of Grendel and other monsters with Cain (and with fundamental alienation from God and humankind) informs the following passages in Beowulf: Lines 105-14 (initial identification); 1258b-78 (and see 1345-76a for the setting); 1557-62 (the sword in the mere) and 1677-98a (Hrothgar reads the hilt).
More generally, the issue of fratricide plays a significant role throughout Beowulf: See lines 81b-85 and 1162b-65a (foreboding of future problems in the kingdom of the Danes); 584-94 and 1165b-69a (Hunferth) and 1455-64 and 1519b-28 (Hrunting, Hunferth's sword); 902b-04a and 1709b-22 (Heremod); 2435-67 (Hrethel and his sons; the "Elegy of the Old Father"); 2741-43a (Beowulf's claim of innocence).
Relation and Isolation
Relation
Heorot, 67b-85, 305-11--light, joy, singing, treasure-sharing
Creation, 86-115--circle of light and life
Hyglac and Beowulf, 2190-99--reciprocity
Isolation
Grendel's habitat, 102-05, 1357-76, 1408-41--darkness, cold, remoteness, hiddenness (dygel land 'hidden land')
Dragon's dwelling, 2200 ff.--the dragon is a heath-dweller; the path to the hoard is eldum uncuð 'unknown to men'
"Elegy of the Old Father," esp. 2455-59--empty halls
Beowulf's Barrow, 3156 ff.--isolation in death
Mutability
A thesis: Beowulf treats the theme of mutability on three levels and in terms of three models: (1) the level of the world, represented in the poem by the model of created land surrounded by the shoreless sea; (2) the level of society, represented in the poem by the bright hall surrounded by the encroaching powers of darkness; and (3) the level of the hero, represented by the structure of the poem itself, a static balance between youth and strength, on the one hand, and old age and death, on the other.
The Structure of Beowulf: This Transitory Life
Things to consider:
The ubi sunt motif: Ubi sunt qui ante nos fuerunt 'where are those who were before us,' a theme not limited to Old English consciousness, of course, but exhibited here with particular poignancy.
The heroic code in Beowulf, 1384-89 (Beowulf speaking to Hrothgar)
The heroic code in Maldon, 312-13 (Byrhtwold's famous words)
"The Lay of the Last Survivor," 2231 ff.--disintegration of society, of things, and of person
Ubi sunt in The Wanderer, esp. 89-111--læne lif
Tolkien's "The Hoard" (see The Tolkien Reader or The Adventures of Tom Bombadil)
part 2 notes
Summary and Analysis of Lines 1-193
Summary:
The poem begins with a genealogy of the Danish royal family. Scyld Shefing, the founder of the dynasty, becomes King of the Danes not through wealth (for he comes from an impoverished family) but through his ability to sack the enemies. He has a son named Beow (called Beowulf), also called a great king because he gave his treasures to his men "to make sure that later in life his beloved companions will stand by him." Upon Scyld's death, the people bury him and his treasures at sea in a traditional Germanic ceremony. Beow comes to the throne, and has a son, Healfdene. Healfdene, in turn, becomes the father of Hrothgar, the King of the Danes at the beginning of the story.
Like his ancestors, Hrothgar has kept the kingdom prosperous through winning battles and honoring his warriors. He decides to build a lavish hall named Heorot. Soon it is finished, and it becomes a great hall of feastingŠ until the demon Grendel hears the happiness in the hall and wishes to destroy it. Thus Grendel begins the bloody, 12-year rampage on Heorot that leaves Hrothgar and his people powerless to stop him.
Analysis:
The prologue recounts an age of glory for the Danes, yet it has a bitter tone. The "grand old days" of heroes has been replaced with an era of cowardice. From his description, we see that Scyld is a mighty king who can defeat anything. Compare this to his great- great- grandson Hrothgar, who is only fighting one enemy, yet allows the enemy to take over his kingdom completely without attempting to kill the monster himself. The narrator also foreshadows another weakness in the later Germanics. Beowulf of the Danes keeps his men faithful by paying them treasures; later in the poem, even treasure will not keep Beowulf of the Geats' men from leaving him to fight alone.
Heorot is Old English for "the hart," and indeed the splendor of the hall flees as a deer. The hall and the arrival of Grendel are likened to the story of the Creation and the Flood: a paradise is built, and the people enjoy its fruits until they are cursed with a disaster (even a family member of Cain is involved). Despite their knowledge of God and Christian ritual, the people turn to the pagan rituals: the Danes still expect the pagan gods to help them from the dire situation, and Grendel cannot be "bought off" with the traditional Danegeld, paid to an enemy to stop his attack.
Summary and Analysis of Lines 194-709
Summary:
The news of the trouble in Denmark eventually reaches the land of the Geats. The king of this land, Hygelac, has a thane named Beowulf, who announces that he is willing to help Denmark. His elders encourage him, even though they don't really want him to go. Beowulf picks fourteen other men, all good warriors, to travel with him. Beowulf's party "flew on the water fast," riding the waves to Denmark in their ship. Once they reach the shore, they depart the ship with their armor and weapons clinking. A coast watchman stops their progress, demanding to know who these warriors are and if they are friend or foe. Beowulf announces himself as the thane of Hygelac and the son of Ecgtheow, a man known for winning battles. He asks the coastguard to show him the way to Hrothgar's castle, so that he may give him wise counsel. The coastguard deems Beowulf worthy, and takes him to the road that leads to Heorot.
Beowulf and his thanes march up the road. When they reach Hrothgar's castle, they meet the thane Wulfgar. Beowulf introduces himself, and Wulfgar takes the information to Hrothgar. Hrothgar is pleased‹he remembers Ecgtheow, and he has heard that Beowulf is very strong. He also believes that "the Measurer/ Maker of us all has urged him here." Wulfgar allows the Geats to meet Hrothgar.
Once at Hrothgar's throne, Beowulf introduces himself as a hero who can crush water sprites, among other things. Therefore he is equipped to defeat Grendel, if Wyrd (or Fate) will have it so. Hrothgar welcomes Beowulf as the son of Ecgtheow, the man whom Hrothgar had helped in settling a feud with the Wylfingas long ago. When Hrothgar did that, he was a young man and a new king. Now Grendel ravages his countryŠbut then is not the time to dwell upon such things. Instead, the Geats must join the Danes for a feast. Thus the benches are dragged out, the mead flows, and the minstrel sings.
During the feast, Hrothgar's thane Unferth tries to discredit Beowulf. He accuses Beowulf of losing a swimming contest with Breca. Beowulf disagrees‹he not only defeated Breca, he also fought off heaps of sea-monsters, thanks to both God and Wyrd. What heroic deeds have Breca, or even Unferth, done? Unferth even killed his brothers, and he hasn't done anything to stop Grendel. Upon hearing Unferth shamed by Beowulf, the whole company laughs.
Soon afterwards, the queen Wealhtheow enters the room, bearing a mead-cup. She offers it first to Hrothgar, then to the rest of the company. Finally she offers it to Beowulf. When he takes it, he says, "I'll give you [Grendel's] life blood/Šor finish my days/ here in Heorot." His words touch Wealhtheow.
Eventually the party winds down, and Hrothgar is ready for bed. Before leaving Beowulf, Hrothgar wishes him luck and promises him all the gold he has if he can defeat Grendel. Beowulf says he will leave it to God. While his friends worry about whether they will see their homeland again, Beowulf lies down.
Analysis:
We receive the first bit of character development of Beowulf in this part of the poem. We learn that he is beloved of his people, a faithful thane of Hygelac, and a prince in his own right (through his father Ecgtheow). He is respectful to everyone he encounters, from the lowly coast guard to King Hrothgar. Later, he even shows his respect for women in his gentle words to Wealhtheow. The rumor mill has told the Danish court that he is actually a good, strong warrior. Finally, Beowulf does believe in religion. He follows both the ancient Germanic practices and the Christian practices, as we see in his ability to leave it entirely in the hands of God and Wyrd (the Anglo-Saxon word for "fate"). In short, he seems like just the man for the job, and Hrothgar realizes it.
Of course, Beowulf still has to prove himself to the company of the Danes. Enter Unferth, the maker of discord. Unferth's job is to test the actual valor of the warrior and his ability to fend off a verbal attack. Beowulf not only answers the challenge (yes, he did win the contest), he also shows the extent of his bravery (he defeated the sea monsters) and discredits Unferth's truthtelling (Unferth is nothing but a drunk murderer who can't act). With his graceful and complete defense, Beowulf proves himself to be the consummate warrior, able to fight with words and swords equally well.
The boasting match between Unferth and Beowulf is the first in a series of told and retold stories within the poem. Throughout the poem, stories are told several times, with different details appearing with each retelling. This repetition of stories is very important. It reveals the oral nature of the culture‹people learn most legends and histories of their land through these stories. It makes the people learn morals by examples of people who did good or ill. Finally, the stories work as tools for foreshadowing, especially within the larger narrative. As we will learn, Beowulf's ability to swim for long distances and long periods will become very important in his defeat of Grendel's mother.
The characters also provide foreshadowing for each other in the poem. Hrothgar and Wulfgar have a very close relationship‹Wulfgar serves Hrothgar faithfully, while Hrothgar relies on Wulfgar for sound judgement. Later this will resemble the relationship between king Beowulf and his faithful thane Wiglaf. One can also compare the relationship between Beowulf as the young warrior and Hrothgar as the young-warrior-turned-old-powerless-king. Hrothgar almost certainly indicates Beowulf's fate at the same age‹powerless, needing to rely on other thanes to help him.
Summary and Analysis of Lines 710-915
Summary:
As usual, Grendel plods through the darkness, heading toward Heorot for his nightly slaughter. He grips the hall door and rips it away. As he enters, his eyes fall upon the warriors sleeping. Little does he know that Beowulf is watching. Grendel reaches for and completely swallows one of the warriors. Next the monster reaches for Beowulf, who is ready for him. Beowulf seizes the vicious claw and holds on to it. Grendel is at first confused, then fearful as he tries to pull away. Still Beowulf hangs on tight. Grendel's wrenching and bellowing brings the Danes out of their slumber and nearly breaks Heorot. Grendel desperately wants to be free and go home, but Beowulf keeps him in place. All the warriors don't know how to help. Grendel is in such agony that he finally rips from Beowulf's grasp and runs away, leaving a bloody trail and his arm behind.
Beowulf, meanwhile, "held to his promise." As the sun rises, the people gaze at the severed arm and rejoice that the terror with Grendel is finally over. Some men follow Grendel's bloody tracks to the moors, where the water bubbles over with blood as "the tomb of the dammed."
On the way back to the hall, Hrothgar's minstrel sings a story of Beowulf's heroic deed. He also sings a story of other Danish legends. He sings of Sigemund, the hero who, with his friend Fitela, defeated a dragon and gained its treasure. He also sings of Good King Heremod, who became corrupt and evil.
Analysis:
The Beowulf poet is fond of a good pun. Here he leaps on the chance to show off his different ways to work "holding" puns into this section. Grendel and Beowulf do more reaching, gripping, tearing with hands, and seizing in this portion of the poem than any other portion. All the references fall before the battle between Beowulf and Grendel‹so we may appreciate the way Beowulf "held to his promise" by ripping the monster's arm off.
Grendel's march and arrival at Heorot create a great sense of dramatic tension in the poem. First the poet sets the scene in dank darkness, then turns to the peaceful, slumbering warriors (except for one who remains awake). Grendel trods through the moors and darkness for ten tense lines, then suddenly bursts into full attack mode. The viewpoint shifts to Beowulf, who simply watches. During the battle, there is a great seesawing of viewpoint, from terrified Grendel to determined Beowulf to waiting warriors. The changing viewpoint allows us to savor the suspense of the moment and see the scene in different ways.
The symbolic light and darkness also figure heavily into the scene. The evil Grendel ambles over the dark moors in the dead of night; Beowulf waits by the lights in the hall. Dark Grendel gazes at the glinting gold on the hall. The battle that began in darkness is completed in the dawning of day. The tension between light (symbolizing good) and dark (symbolizing evil) returns again and again in the poem.
Some have wondered why Beowulf didn't run to action immediately when the monster enters. Why would he let two of his men meet such a terrible fate? Beowulf sees them as a necessary sacrifice. Again he uses the sense of a true warrior to act. Instead of rushing into battle blindly, Beowulf chooses to stand back and get a better idea of the enemy's strengths and weaknesses.
The scop sings as the men return to Heorot. Here the scop acts as a historian and places Beowulf into his song-annals as a man like the heroes of old. He uses the story of Sigemund as a teaching tool for Beowulf, who has the courage to defeat a dragon. Sigemund's story also serves as foreshadowing for Beowulf's future. Eventually Beowulf will come to fight a dragon, with only one thane by his side. The story of Heremod serves as a lesson to Beowulf, teaching him how not to rule a kingdom.
Summary and Analysis of Lines 916-1250
Summary:
In the bright daylight, Hrothgar and Wealhtheow wait for messengers bearing news. Upon hearing the miracle that has occurred, Hrothgar thanks God and praises Beowulf's mother for being "blessed in childbirth." He declares Beowulf to be the child of his hopes, and promises him riches galore. Beowulf tells Hrothgar how his victory came, regretting that he was unable to bring Grendel's dead body to Hrothgar. Unferth stands transfixed by the sight of Grendel's arm. In fact, everyone gazes upon the arm and agrees that no sword could have done such a thing.
While the mead-hall is restored to its former glory, the narrator reminds us that death cannot be avoided. The party begins, and Hrothgar celebrates with his brother Hrothulf and Beowulf. There was no feud at this time between the brothers. Beowulf receives armor, rings, helmets, horses, and all sorts of gifts. The Geats receive gifts as well, and wergild is paid for the man the Geats lost. God and Beowulf's courage were enough to withstand wyrd.
The minstrel sings another story. This song tells the tragic story of Hildeburh, the ancient Danish princess. She was married to the king of the Frisians to settle a feud. When her brother Hnaef visited her at the Frisian capital, the Frisians attacked the Danes. Eventually Hnaef and Hildeburh's son were killed in this battle. Hengest, the next leader of the Danes, desired vengeance, and in the spring, the Danes attacked the Frisians, killing their leader and taking Hildeburh back to Denmark.
After this story, Wealhtheow comes forth. She presents herself to Hrothgar, and begs that he bequeath his lands to his family. She says she is sure Hrothulf will care for their two young sons when they inherit the kingdom. She also presents a marvelous neck-ring to Beowulf. Beowulf's king Hygelac will eventually wear this necklace when he falls. Soon the party ends, leaving warriors in various states of inebriation as they sleep.
Analysis:
The poem begins its descent into darkness and death with this section. At first it seems that all is well in Denmark. The monster is gone, the hall is built again, and Hrothgar and his brother Hrothulf are celebrating, on good terms with each other. Yet it is an uneasy peace. As Heorot is repaired, the narrator tells us that death cannot be avoided. He feels that we should know that the brothers are not feuding at that time. At the height of the celebration, the minstrel sings a tragic tale that tells of the defeat of the ancient Danes. Wealhtheow gives a necklace that Beowulf's king Hygelac will wear when he falls. The section ends with "one beer drinker / ready and doomed [laying] down on bed." Things will become more and more difficult for the Danes and the Geats, leading to nothing but death. There have already been death-feasts (for Grendel and for the men dead by his hand); now there will be sleep-deaths (in this warrior sleeping and in the warriors before). Everything will eventually lead to ruin and death, despite the continuing parties.
We receive two different visions of women in this portion of Beowulf. Beowulf's mother can be seen as an allegory for the Virgin Mary, who was also "blessed in childbirth." Both women have borne great heroes who will save mankind (by bearing Beowulf and Jesus). Yet Beowulf's mother does not seem to have any other virtues other than being a childbearer.
Compare this to Wealhtheow's role at court. Wealhtheow has already been shown as the model of a good queen. She bears the cup of the mead-hall to serve her husband and guests. She also conforms to her name, which means "treasure-bearer," by assisting in the giving of gifts to Beowulf. She acts as a peace-weaver between her husband and brother-in-law, offering Hrothulf the right to care for her sons in their father's absence. Yet she refrains from saying that Hrothulf will inherit the kingdom, and shows enough courage to ask Hrothgar to protect the kingdom for her own sons. Thus we see her as a free-thinking woman who wants to protect her sons and her kingdom‹more than just a mother.
The story of the fight at Finnesburh is documented in what is known as the Finnesburh fragment, which tells us about one of the battles. Why should the minstrel tell the story at such an inopportune moment? It is his means of educating the people‹if the Danes are not careful, they will fall in such a manner again. As always, the story also foreshadows events that will be recounted in Beowulf's speech to his own lord, Hygelac.
Summary and Analysis of Lines 1251-1649
Summary:
As the Danes slumber, another sinister monster trudges toward Heorot. It is Grendel's mother, who is also dammed to spend eternity in the dark moors. She has passed the day mourning for her dead son, and she comes to Heorot seeking vengeance for his death. When she bursts into Heorot, the warriors awake and grab their weapons. She is not as strong as her son is, but she still is strong enough to devour one warrior and snatch the arm down from its place on the wall. The desire for vengeance points to "the price of slaughter/ with a loved one's life."
Hrothgar hears of the slaughter of his beloved thane Aeschere, and he hurries to the hall to mourn. Beowulf, who slept away from the hall, is summoned. Hrothgar updates him and tells him about the man that Grendel's mother killed. He also tells Beowulf that monsters like Grendel dwell in the dark moors, which are difficult to reach. Beowulf asks Hrothgar to lead him to the moors instead of mourning for his friend. Hrothgar, Beowulf, and their thanes saddle up and ride away.
At the bloodstained lake, the search party finds Aeschere's head. They also see the serpentine creatures that inhabit the murky lake, and they shake with fear. Beowulf simply calls for his armor. Unferth offers Beowulf his own sword, named Hrunting. Beowulf then announces to Hrothgar that his belongings should be sent to Hygelac if something happens. Before Hrothgar can speak, Beowulf dives into the pool.
After a long time, Beowulf reaches the bottom of the lake, where Grendel's mother waits for him. She reaches for him, but his armor protects him. He tries to cut her, but his sword can't cut her. The two begin to wrestle, but neither gains the upper hand in this combat. Beowulf spies a large sword nearby. He manages to grab it, and in one mighty blow, he beheads Grendel's mother. Light enters the murky water then. Beowulf is still angry, however, so he also beheads Grendel, who lies dead in the cave.
Meanwhile, the Danes and Geats are convinced that they will never see Beowulf again‹after all, he has been underwater for such a long time. The Danes soon leave, but the Geats wait. Sure enough, Beowulf returns carrying Grendel's head and the hilt of the sword (the rest of the sword melted upon contact with Grendel's blood).
Analysis:
The need for repayment in some form is also a constant theme within the poem. The monsters of the poem all seek payment from life. Here Grendel's mother seeks vengeance for Grendel's death, wanting to take a life for his life. Grendel attacked Heorot because he wanted revenge for being shunned and despised. The humans think of repayment for life in monetary terms, with what is called "wergild." Beowulf is repaid for his dead man with treasures; Hrothgar cannot understand how to pay a fitting wergild to Grendel for all his lost men. The attack here is thus an attempt for Grendel's mother to retrieve the wergild on her son's life.
Hrothgar and his men show their usual cowardice in this section. Instead of asking who has killed his beloved thane and resolving to do something about it, Hrothgar merely weeps over the dead body. The Danes and Geats both quake in fear at the sight of the creatures and Aeschere's head. Beowulf, meanwhile, acts bravely, asking Hrothgar to take him to the moors, simply diving into the water instead of hanging around talking.
This battle is not as easy for Beowulf as the first one was. We knew that he could swim for great distances‹we learned this in the Breca episode. Yet it takes more than Unferth's sword to defeat Grendel's mother. In fact, the battle is won when the giant sword magically appears. This represents Beowulf's decline even in the prime of his life‹from this point, the battles will get harder for him.
The battle can be seen as a Christian allegory. Beowulf swims to hell (the underground of the moors). It is a dark place. He does battle with the devil (Grendel's mother). Although he nearly loses, God grants him a sign that will help him win (the vision of the sword). Beowulf kills the devil, and light from heaven fills hell as a blessing. Beowulf then returns from the darkness of hell to reach the light of heaven. In this allegory, Beowulf represents Jesus' descent to hell and return to life in the Resurrection. Later the poet will compare Beowulf to Christ again.
Summary and Analysis of Lines 1650-1887
Summary:
The Geats return to Heorot, where Beowulf presents the head and the hilt to Hrothgar. Hrothgar marvels at the runes on the hilt, which must have been made by giants. He praises Beowulf for his great courage. He repeats the story of evil King Heremod for Beowulf, then advises him on how to be a good king. We learn that Hrothgar has ruled for fifty years. He thanks God for protecting the Danes, and then calls for another feast. They party until late, and again the warriors all sleep in the darkness.
The next morning brings no slaughter, thankfully. Beowulf and his company wish to hurry back to their own land. Beowulf returns Hrunting to Unferth and thanks him kindly.
Before leaving, Beowulf thanks Hrothgar for the treasures, and he offers the help of the Geats if the Danes should ever need it. Hrothgar thanks Beowulf and predicts that the boy will become a great hero-king. As he watches the Geats pack up, Hrothgar wishes that Beowulf could stay. We learn that Hrothgar lived the rest of his days as a good king until he died.
Analysis:
The story recounted on the hilt of the sword is that of Noah's Great Flood as recorded in Genesis. This reinforces the constant emphasis on water that has been shown throughout the poem. The Flood narrative has a special relevance here. We are reminded of the fate of all Cain's previous descendants in that great flood; again his descendants (Grendel and Grendel's mother) have met the same fate by dying in a watery grave. However, this curses the waters for men‹from this point, man's travel by water will be doomed, leading to war and death.
Unferth has cleaned up his act, as we have seen in the sections after the boasting contest. He has seen the awe of Grendel's hand; he has graciously given Beowulf a sword to defeat Grendel's mother. In this last meeting, Beowulf and Unferth can meet as equal warriors,as they have both done noble things.
Events useful for understanding the fall of the Danes and the Geats are set up here. Beowulf's offer of help for the Danes will be acknowledged, but the Geats will be powerless to stop the enemy. For now, this offer of help to the Danes is another part of the warrior code; one should give aid to those that have aided him.
Hrothgar's rule will be a guide for Beowulf's own rule as a king. Like Hrothgar, Beowulf will rule for fifty years and be venerated as a good king.
Summary and Analysis of Lines 1888-2199
Summary:
Beowulf and the Geats return to their homeland with much rejoicing and giving of gifts. Again they "follow the swan-road" to get there. Hygelac and his queen Hygd welcome the warriors back home. The narrator compares Hygd to Offa's queen‹Hygd is a good wife, while Offa's queen was murderous until King Offa tamed her. When Beowulf tells his adventures to Hygelac, he adds another story that we have not heard before. Hrothgar betrothed his daughter Freawaru to a prince of the Heathobards in order to settle an old feud. Beowulf speculates that someone will goad this Heathobard prince to take vengeance upon the Danes for all their past wrongs. Then he gives Hygelac a sword of Hrothgar's while Hygd receives a neck-ring. When Beowulf was younger, no one thought he would come to any good; now they praise him as a warrior and hero. As a reward, Hygelac gives him half the kingdom. They rule the land together peacefully.
Analysis:
Some scholars have speculated that Beowulf's author was a servant of the real king Offa. They interpret the story of Offa's wife as the poet's attempt to show the power of the king. Offa's wife seems to be a human version of Grendel's mother, killing in a rage until a man is able to subdue her.
In Beowulf's version of events in Denmark, we learn the new story of Freawaru's betrothal to the Heathobard Prince. The parallels to the tale of Hildeburh are obvious‹a Danish princess is married to a rival country for peace, but war and death will be the result.
Beowulf plays the part of a minstrel here, the scop who teaches. Here he recounts the tale not only to tell Hygelac of the events in Denmark. He also shows his head for politics. The fact that he is able to clearly interpret the possible events of such a match attests to his talent for ruling. Hygelac apparently thinks so, too, as he gives him half the kingdom as a reward.
The rakish youth is a common trope literature. Beowulf follows the path that many other heroes have followed. When he was young, people thought he would be worthless, but as a man they praise him for his heroism.
Summary and Analysis of Lines 2200-2537
Summary:
Fifty years pass. Hygelac has died in a distant land, leaving Beowulf to reign the Geats. In the fiftieth year of his reign, another monster has the Geats under attack. A slave stole a cup from a fire-breathing dragon's treasure trove. This dragon was guarding the treasure, which was left by an ancient civilization. The last member of the race has a particularly moving speech in which he realizes that life is fleeting, compared to the permanent wealth. Eventually the dragon found the treasure, and he has guarded it for three hundred years. He slept in peace until the slave stole the cup as a plea for mercy from his lord. Now the dragon realizes that something is missing, and he goes on a rampage to find the cup.
Beowulf learns of the threat through the message that one of his mead-halls has been destroyed. The horrible news causes him to wonder if he has done something to upset God. He manages to have a large shield made in preparation for the battle with the dragon. Yet he fully realized that he is not the same young man who saved Heorot, and he has no desire to do battle.
He recalls the sad events of Hygelac's death. Hygelac died in the land of the Frisians, and Beowulf only barely escaped alive. He sailed home, where Hygd offered him the throne. Beowulf refused it in favor of Hygelac's son Heardred. The Swedes, however, betrayed Heardred and killed him, thus leaving Beowulf as the only heir. So Beowulf ruled for fifty years peacefully until the dragon came.
Beowulf and eleven of his thanes march to the cave of the dragon, as the slave who stole the cup shows them the way. As they wait before charging into the cave, Beowulf, his mind heavy with the thought of death, recounts the history of the Geat royal family. Hygelac's brothers accidentally killed each other, leaving their father to die of a broken heart. Then the Swedes came to attack, and Beowulf served Hygelac well. He gained the great sword Naegling in one of the battles with the Swedes, and he has used it since that time. Having fought bravely through his life, he is now ready to face the dragon.
Analysis:
How the world has changed over the fifty years of Beowulf's reign! All the old, great kings of long ago are now dead, as we learn from the tale of Hygelac's death. Instead of peace between the lands, everyone is engaged in a Germanic-world war. All the respect that masters and servants held for each other is now gone, to be replaced by a desire for wealth and freedom from oppression by the higher classes (as seen in the motivation for the cup-stealing). Mead-halls are destroyed, brothers kill each other, and kings live in fear. This is the culmination of the darkness that began shortly after Grendel's defeat.
The narrator reveals the similarity between the mighty Beowulf and the lowly survivor quite powerfully. The survivor speaks hauntingly about the uselessness of wealth when death is so near. After the dragon arrives and attacks, Beowulf is shown, worrying about the usefulness of life when battles and death are waiting. Each man has his own dragon to fight (the monster of greed for the survivor and the actual dragon for Beowulf), even as they wait for death.
A story imagined previously actually occurs, showing the predicting nature of stories. The scenario that Wealhtheow feared for her own sons happened to the Geats. Hygelac's sons are killed not by a brother, but by a brother tribe in the Swedes.
Beowulf is not the warrior he used to be; instead, he resembles the now-dead Hrothgar. Once he needed only his bare hands to defeat an enemy; now he needs a pilfered sword and a large shield. Once he relished a battle; now he wishes he didn't have to fight. Once he knew victory was certain; now the only thing certain is death. The narrator clearly represents the change in men between youth and old age.
Beowulf's pause before attacking is akin to Jesus' speech at the Last Supper. Certainly the settings are similar. Beowulf is surrounded by 12 men, with the slave who stole the cup acting as the betraying Judas (and the destroyer of the kingdom). Beowulf, like Jesus, knows that he will die soon. He passes on the story of his rise to the throne to his disciples, so that they will pass it on in remembrance of him.
Summary and Analysis of Lines 2538-2819
Summary:
After giving his farewell speech, Beowulf turns, gives a mighty shout, and charges forward. The dragon hears the shout and answers with a stream of fire. Beowulf readies his sword and shield, swinging at the monster with all his might.
His companions, meanwhile, have all run away like cowards. Only one, a young thane named Wiglaf, has chosen to remain. Wiglaf didn't flee because he remembered all the gifts Beowulf had given his family. He tries to persuade his comrades to remember what they owe to their lord, but to no avail. Then Wiglaf charges forth, ready to help Beowulf.
The dragon heads toward Beowulf and Wiglaf. Wiglaf cowers behind Beowulf, but Beowulf swings three times. On the last try, Beowulf kills the dragon, but not before the dragon has given him a poisonous bite. After the dragon has been destroyed, Beowulf collapses.
Wiglaf tries to bathe his lord as Beowulf speaks. Beowulf wishes for an heir. Then he expresses joy at having lived as a good man. He orders Wiglaf to bring him the treasure, so he can see it before he dies. Wiglaf brings the shining gems before him, and Beowulf is in awe of the riches. He tells Wiglaf to build him a burial mound, so sailors may guide themselves by it. Finally, he chooses Wiglaf as his heir, since they are both Waegmundings. And with that, Beowulf dies.
Analysis:
The Beowulf-as-Christ theme continues in this section. Beowulf as the Christ figure is betrayed by his disciple-thanes, who flee in terror at the first sign of danger to themselves. One disciple (in the form of Wiglaf) stays, though he also betrays the lord by being unable and too afraid to fight. After three blows
The warrior code is still extant, although only a few members of the warrior class follow it. Wiglaf remains at Beowulf's side for much the same reason that Beowulf came to help Hrothgar so long ago‹the kindness of the lord caused his family to have land and influence, and he must stay to return the favor. Beowulf, of course, plays the role of a proper king here. He charges forth, thinking only of defeating the monster to save his kingdom. At his death, his thoughts are also only of his people. He wishes to be buried on land to serve as a guide to his sailors. His dying breath is saved for naming the most fitting heir to his people.
The dying warrior being comforted by his comrade becomes a common trope as well. The image of Wiglaf holding the dying Beowulf brings forth later images of King Arthur being comforted by Sir Bedivere in later works.
Summary and Analysis of Lines 2820-3182
Summary:
Wiglaf weeps for his lord's exchange of "those lordly treasures for his life's boundary." The dragon lies dead, vanquished by the noble warriors, no longer able to work in darkness.
The cowardly thanes sneak out of the woods to see what has happened. They see Wiglaf comforting the dead Beowulf. Wiglaf turns on his comrades, cursing them for being such cowardly men.
Wiglaf sends a messenger to the people telling them that their king is dead. The messenger also foresees a time of great slaughter for the Geats. The feud that began with Hygelac and the Frisians (which the messenger repeats again in great detail) will continue when the Swedes hear of Beowulf's death. The treasures that Beowulf died to earn will be buried in the mound with him. The harp will stay silent for the coming of the ravens of war.
The people all go to collect the body of their lord. While there they see the body of the dragon, and they speculate that some "ancient sorcerers swore a greed-spell" that would bring suffering to the Geats. Wiglaf orders the burial mound prepared, while the dragon's body is to be shoved into the waters. At the ceremony, Beowulf's body is burned on a pyre, as the women wail and the men share stories of his bravery.
Analysis:
We now see the aftermath of all the greed. Despite Beowulf's own greed that motivated him to fight for the treasure, however, it still makes him greater than the dragon, which moved "at sunset" and in darkness, as all the monsters did. The dragon is cursed again with burial at sea, just as Grendel and his mother were buried earlier in the poem.
Though Wiglaf is not quite the strong thane that Beowulf was, he is obviously learning, and in quite a hurry. He has enough presence of mind to berate the cowards for their weakness, and he knows that the people must quickly grieve for their lost lord, so that they may prepare for the war that is inevitable.
Again stories told within the text have relevance to the primary narrative. Like the civilization that owned the treasure before, the last surviving member of the Geats (Beowulf) will be buried with the permanent riches. The recurring enemies of the Geats and Danes, the Frisians and the Swedes, will return. In addition, the ruling class overlaps with the artistic class in the telling of these stories. The messenger and Wiglaf now have the task of telling these stories of the ancient feuds and heroes, since there is no longer a hall in which to sing and a great minstrel to sing the tale.
Finally, closure is achieved in the poem by having it end as it began--with a funeral scene. Certain elements are retained between the two funerals. The people still mourn, and the king meets death accompanied by a wealth of treasure. This time, however, Beowulf cannot be sent out to sea as Scyld Shefing was, because he is too earthly in his desire to see the wealth. In addition, the sea has been corrupted by the bodies of the monsters resting in its depths. Therefore, Beowulf must be buried on land, with the treasures of mankind surrounding his ashes, pointing the way for all men that should happen to sail over the sea. It is a fitting end to the warrior who worked to protect his people‹the chance for rest, though still ably serving a purpose.
posted by Meagan | 10:52 AM
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